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Monday 25 April 2011
Wednesday 20 April 2011
[note] LINKAGE AND GENETIC MAPPING IN EUKARYOTE
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[note] GENETIC ANALYSIS AND PRINCIPLE
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Microbial Metabolism
Monday 11 April 2011
Tutorial 5: Mendelian law consistency
Short essay:
Explain the consistency of Mendelian’s law with the chromosome theory of inheritance. Draw the figures of each law.
The chromosome theories of inheritance are based on a few fundamental principles.
1. Chromosome contains genetics materials that is transmitted from parent to offspring and from cell to cell.
2. Chromosomes are replicated and pass along, generation after generation, from parent to offspring. They are also passing from cell to cell during the cellular development of an organism. Each times of chromosome retains its individuality during cell division and gamete formation.
3. The nuclei of most eukaryotic have chromosomes that are that are found in homologous pair.
4. During the formation of haploid cell, different types of (no homologous) chromosome segregate independently to each other.
5. Each parent contributes one set of chromosome to its offspring. The maternal and paternal sets of chromosome are functionally equivalent.
The figures (A) next show the law of segregation. From here we can see the movement of chromosome. A heterozygous individual would only pass one of these two allele to each offspring. In other words, a gamete may contain only single allele not both allele. This is because homologous chromosome segregate from each other, a gamete will contain only one copy of each type of chromosome.
The figures(B) next show considered the segregation of two type of chromosome, each carrying a different gene. At metaphase of meiosis I, the different types of chromosome have randomly aligned along the metaphase plate. This also can occur in one way. The random alignment of chromatid pairs during meiosis I can lead to an independent assortment of genes that are found on non homologous chromosomes.
Tutorial 6: important of morgan's work
What is the important of the Morgan’s work?
The American zoologist and geneticist Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-1945) established the theory of the gene which helped clarify the process of evolution and formed the modern basis of heredity.
Morgan formed the Chromosome Theory of Heredity after his fruit fly experiment. He was proven correct in his assumptions that chromosomes contain many genes, and that some chromosomes are related to sex. He also proved that genes on one chromosome were inherited together, and genes on different chromosomes were not. He noticed that there were no exceptions to his general rule. He formulated three laws that go with his theory of heredity:
- Genes are inside of chromosomes. A certain gene is at the same spot on each chromosome, and that spot is called the locus.
- Crossing Over, or the subtle exchange of fragments of chromosomes, only takes place between homologous chromosomes.
- The frequency of a cross-over is directly in proportion to how far apart the chromosomes are in the cell nucleus. The farther apart they are, the more they cross over.
Morgan basically was the man who figured out what genes were, without knowing about DNA. He published many papers and books. Morgan was "the man who made it happen." Mendel had laid the groundwork for someone like Thomas Hunt Morgan to come in and set genetics in motion.
Tutorial 4: State some differences between mitosis and meiosis
| Mitosis | Meiosis |
| Prophase is short and complete in one step | Prophase is long and complete in 5 sub phase which are leptotene, zygotene, pachytene, diplotene, diakinesis |
| Conserve chromosome number (2n) | Reduce the chromosome number (n) |
| No Synapsis occur to form bivalent during prophase | Synapsis occur to form bivalent during prophase I |
| No crossing over occur | Crossing over occur |
| No Chiasma | Have Chiasma |
| Contain of genetic material in daughter cell is identical as the parent cell | Contain of genetic material not identical as the parent cell |
| Produce 2 daughter cell each (2n) | Produce 4 daughter cell each (n) |
| Cytokinesis occur once | Cytokinesis occur twice |
| Occur in the somatic cell | Occur in gonad cell |
Tutorial 3: Find the word
Bivalent
A structure in which two pairs of homologous sister chromatids have synapse. (Brooker, 2009)
Chiasma
The site where the crossing over occur between the two chromosomes. (Brooker, 2009)
Chromosome
Structure in the cell nucleus that consist of chromatin and genes. (Eldra P. Solomon, Linda R. Berg, Diana W.Martin, 2005)
Crossing over
A process in which genetic materials (DNA) is exchanged between paired, homologous chromosome. (Eldra P. Solomon, Linda R. Berg, Diana W.Martin, 2005)
Diakinesis
The fifth phase stage prophase of meiosis I. (Brooker, 2009)
Diplotena
The fourth stage of prophase in meiosis I. (Brooker, 2009)
Egg cell
It is female gamete that is usually very large and no motile. (Brooker, 2009)
Embryo sac
The female gametophyte generation in flowering plants. (Eldra P. Solomon, Linda R. Berg, Diana W.Martin, 2005)
Endosperm
The 3n nutritive tissue that is form at some point in the development of all angiosperm seed. (Eldra P. Solomon, Linda R. Berg, Diana W.Martin, 2005)
Fertilization
The union of gametes to begin the new life of an organism. (Brooker, 2009)
Gametophyte
The haploid generation of the plants. (Brooker, 2009)
Heterogamous
Describe a species that produces two morphologically different types of gametes. (Brooker, 2009)
Isogamous
Describe the morphologically similar gametes. (Brooker, 2009)
Leptotene
The first stage in prophase I where the chromosome start to condense (Neil, 2005)
Meiosis
A form of nuclear division in which the sorting process result in a production of haploid cell. (Brooker, 2009)
Oogenesis
Production of female’s gametes. (Eldra P. Solomon, Linda R. Berg, Diana W.Martin, 2005)
Pachytena
The third stage in prophase I (Eldra P. Solomon, Linda R. Berg, Diana W.Martin, 2005)
Pollen grain
The immature male gametophyte of seed plants that produces sperm that capable for fertilization. (Eldra P. Solomon, Linda R. Berg, Diana W.Martin, 2005)
Reciprocal cross
A pair of crosses in which the traits of the two parents differ with regard sex. (Brooker, 2009)
Sex chromosome
A pair of chromosome that determine sex in a species.
Sperm cell
The motile reproductive cell of animals n some plants and protist
Spermatogenesis
The production of male gametes by meiosis and subsequent cell differentiation. (Eldra P. Solomon, Linda R. Berg, Diana W.Martin, 2005)
Sporophyte
The diploid generation of plants (Brooker, 2009)
Synapsis
The process of physically association of homologous chromosome during prophase in meiosis I. (Eldra P. Solomon, Linda R. Berg, Diana W.Martin, 2005)
Synaptonemal complex
The structure, visible with the electron microscope, produced when homologous chromosome undergo Synapsis. (Eldra P. Solomon, Linda R. Berg, Diana W.Martin, 2005)
Tetrad
The chromosome complex formed by the process of Synapsis of a pair of chromosome homologous.
X-linked genes
A gene carried on an X chromosome. (Eldra P. Solomon, Linda R. Berg, Diana W.Martin, 2005)
Zygotena
The third stage in prophase I (Eldra P. Solomon, Linda R. Berg, Diana W.Martin, 2005)
Tutorial 2: Find the meaning
Question 1:
Find the meaning of the words
Asexual reproduction
Reproduction in which there is no fusion of gamete and in which the genetic make up of parent and of offspring is usually identical.
Binary fission
Equal division of a cell or organism into two
Cell plate
The structure that form during cytokinesis in plats that separating two daughter cell in mitosis.
Chromatid
One of the 2 identical halve of the duplicated chromosomes.
Chromosome
structure in the cell nucleus that consist of chromatin and genes.
Cleavage furrow
A constricted region of the cytoplasm that form progressively depends during cytokinesis of the animal cell, thereby separating two daughter cell.
Cytogenesis
| The formation, development, and variation of cells. Also called cytogeny. |
Cytogenetics
The branch of biology that deals with heredity and the cellular components, particularly chromosomes, associated with heredity
Cytokinesis
Signaling protein that regulate interaction between cell in the immune systems.
Eukaryotes
An organism who cell have nuclei and other membrane-bounded organelles. Include protist, fungi, plants and animal.
Germ cell
The eggs and sperm are the germ cells: the reproductive cells. Each mature germ cell is haploid in that it has a single set of 23 chromosomes containing half the usual amount of DNA and half the usual number of genes.
Heterogamous
Characterized by the fusion of unlike gametes in the reproductive process and by reproduction involving the alternation of sexual and parthenogenetic generations
Homologous chromosome
Chromosomes that are similar in morphology and genetics constitution.
Isogamous
Describe a species that makes morphological similar gametes.
Karyotype
The chromosomal composition of and individual
Kinetochore
The portion of the chromosome centromere to to which the mitotic fibers attach.
Loci
The physical location of a gene within chromosome.
Metaphase plate
The plate at which chromosomes align during metaphase.
Microtubules
Hollow cylindrical fiber consisting of tubulin protein subunits.
Mitosis
The division of the cell nucleus resulting in two daughter nuclei each with the same number of the chromosome as the parent nucleus.
Nucleus
A membrane bounded organelle in eukaryotic cell where the linear set of chromosomes are found
Prokaryotes
A cell that lacks a nucleus and other membrane-enclosed organelles.
Restriction point
A point in the G1 phase og the cell cycle that cause a cell to progress to cell division.
Septum
The eggs and sperm are the germ cells: the reproductive cells. Each mature germ cell is haploid in that it has a single set of 23 chromosomes containing half the usual amount of DNA and half the usual number of genes.
Sister chromatid
Pairs of replicated chromosomes that are attached to each other at the centromere. Sister chromatid are genetically identical to each other.
Somatic cell
Refer to any cell of the body except for germ-line that give rise to gametes.
Tutorial 1: Self fertilization and Cross fertilization
With the knowledge that the red skin gene and the yellow eye gene assort independently, ur task is to continue this cross by interbreeding F1 individuals to produce the F2 generation.
1. The differences between cross-fertilization and self fertilization
| Self-fertilization | Cross- fertilization |
| · Occur when want to produce F1 generation · The sperm fertilizes the eggs that in the same or different flower of a plant. · The offspring derived from one pea plant. · Involving one plant of the same generation.
| · Occur when want to produce F2 generation · The sperm of one flower fertilizes the eggs of another plant. · The offspring derived from two different types of true breeding of pea plants. · Involving 2 plant. · More variation of the offspring. · Large flower of the pea plant make it possible to remove stamens from the flower preventing self fertilization. |
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